Using polymorphic recursion in OCaml just got easy and direct! With the new syntax, Okasaki's binary random-access lists translate to OCaml 3.12 practically verbatim, without the need for cumbersome encodings. You should refer to the book (Purely Functional Data Structures, p. 147) for comparison, but here's the implementation in its entirety:
type 'a seq = Nil | Zero of ('a * 'a) seq | One of 'a * ('a * 'a) seq
let nil = Nil
let is_empty = function Nil -> true | _ -> false
let rec cons : 'a . 'a -> 'a seq -> 'a seq =
fun x l -> match l with
| Nil -> One (x, Nil)
| Zero ps -> One (x, ps)
| One (y, ps) -> Zero (cons (x, y) ps)
let rec uncons : 'a . 'a seq -> 'a * 'a seq = function
| Nil -> failwith "uncons"
| One (x, Nil) -> x, Nil
| One (x, ps ) -> x, Zero ps
| Zero ps ->
let (x, y), qs = uncons ps in
x, One (y, qs)
let head l = let x, _ = uncons l in x
and tail l = let _, xs = uncons l in xs
let rec lookup : 'a . int -> 'a seq -> 'a =
fun n l -> match l with
| Nil -> failwith "lookup"
| One (x, _ ) when n = 0 -> x
| One (_, ps) -> lookup (n - 1) (Zero ps)
| Zero ps ->
let (x, y) = lookup (n / 2) ps in
if n mod 2 = 0 then x else y
let update n e =
let rec go : 'a . ('a -> 'a) -> int -> 'a seq -> 'a seq =
fun f n l -> match l with
| Nil -> failwith "update"
| One (x, ps) when n = 0 -> One (f x, ps)
| One (x, ps) -> cons x (go f (n - 1) (Zero ps))
| Zero ps ->
let g (x, y) = if n mod 2 = 0 then (f x, y) else (x, f y) in
Zero (go g (n / 2) ps)
in go (fun x -> e) n
The implementation given in the book is rather bare-bones, but it can be extended with some thought and by paying close attention to the techniques Okasaki uses. To begin with, a length function is a very simple O(log n) mapping from constructors to integers:
let rec length : 'a . 'a seq -> int = fun l -> match l with | Nil -> 0 | Zero ps -> 2 * length ps | One (_, ps) -> 1 + 2 * length ps
It is also rather easy to write a map for binary random-access lists:
let rec map : 'a 'b . ('a -> 'b) -> 'a seq -> 'b seq =
fun f l -> match l with
| Nil -> Nil
| One (x, ps) -> One (f x, map (fun (x, y) -> (f x, f y)) ps)
| Zero ps -> Zero (map (fun (x, y) -> (f x, f y)) ps)
Note two things: first, that both parameters need to be generalized as both the argument and the return type vary from invocation to invocation, as shown by the Zero case. Second, that there is no need to use cons, as map preserves the shape of the list. With this as a warm-up, writing fold_right is analogous:
let rec fold_right : 'a 'b . ('a -> 'b -> 'b) -> 'a seq -> 'b -> 'b =
fun f l e -> match l with
| Nil -> e
| One (x, ps) -> f x (fold_right (fun (x, y) z -> f x (f y z)) ps e)
| Zero ps -> fold_right (fun (x, y) z -> f x (f y z)) ps e
Given a right fold, any catamorphism is a one-liner:
let append l = fold_right cons l let of_list l = List.fold_right cons l nil and to_list l = fold_right (fun x l -> x :: l) l []
Now, armed with fold_right, filling up a list library is easy; but taking advantage of the logarithmic nature of the representation requires thought. For instance, building a random-access list of size n can be done in logarithmic time with maximal sharing:
let repeat n x =
let rec go : 'a . int -> 'a -> 'a seq = fun n x ->
if n = 0 then Nil else
if n = 1 then One (x, Nil) else
let t = go (n / 2) (x, x) in
if n mod 2 = 0 then Zero t else One (x, t)
in
if n < 0 then failwith "repeat" else go n x
By analogy with binary adding, there is also a fast O(log n) merge:
let rec merge : 'a . 'a seq -> 'a seq -> 'a seq = fun l r -> match l, r with | Nil , ps | ps , Nil -> ps | Zero ps , Zero qs -> Zero (merge ps qs) | Zero ps , One (x, qs) | One (x, ps), Zero qs -> One (x, merge ps qs) | One (x, ps), One (y, qs) -> Zero (cons (x, y) (merge ps qs))
It walks both lists, "adding" the "bits" at the head. The only complication is the case where both lists are heded by two Ones, which requires rippling the carry with a call to cons. An alternative is to explicitly keep track of the carry, but that doubles the number of branches. This merge operation does not preserve the order of the elements on both lists. It can be used, however, as the basis for a very fast nondeterminism monad:
let return x = One (x, Nil) let join mm = fold_right merge mm Nil let bind f m = join (map f m) let mzero = Nil let mplus = merge
The rank-2 extension to the typing algorithm does not extend to signatures, as in Haskell. It only has effect on the typing of the function body, by keeping the type parameter fresh during unification, as the signature of the module shows:
type 'a seq = Nil | Zero of ('a * 'a) seq | One of 'a * ('a * 'a) seq
val nil : 'a seq
val is_empty : 'a seq -> bool
val cons : 'a -> 'a seq -> 'a seq
val uncons : 'a seq -> 'a * 'a seq
val head : 'a seq -> 'a
val tail : 'a seq -> 'a seq
val lookup : int -> 'a seq -> 'a
val update : int -> 'a -> 'a seq -> 'a seq
val length : 'a seq -> int
val map : ('a -> 'b) -> 'a seq -> 'b seq
val fold_right : ('a -> 'b -> 'b) -> 'a seq -> 'b -> 'b
val append : 'a seq -> 'a seq -> 'a seq
val of_list : 'a list -> 'a seq
val to_list : 'a seq -> 'a list
val repeat : int -> 'a -> 'a seq
val merge : 'a seq -> 'a seq -> 'a seq
val return : 'a -> 'a seq
val join : 'a seq seq -> 'a seq
val bind : ('a -> 'b seq) -> 'a seq -> 'b seq
val mzero : 'a seq
val mplus : 'a seq -> 'a seq -> 'a seq
To use rank-2 types in interfaces it is still necessary to encode them via records or objects.
